ANOCA, INOCA, MINOCA: The New Frontier of Coronary Syndromes.

Abstract: The growing prevalence in the diagnosis of INOCA (Ischemia with Non- Obstructive Coronary Arteries), ANOCA (Angina with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries), and MINOCA (Myocardial Infarction with Non-Obstructive Coronary Arteries) highlights the need to reassess their clinical relevance. Historically regarded as benign syndromes, emerging evidence suggests that these conditions may cause serious cardiovascular events and considerable long-term disability. Additionally, emerging studies suggest that non-obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) may have a higher prevalence compared to traditional obstructive forms of CAD. This leads to the need to better clarify the underlying pathogenic mechanisms as well as the risk factors associated with these syndromes. This is precisely the aim of this review, which focuses on the complex and heterogeneous mechanisms underlying these syndromes as well as the associated risk factors. This review also sums up the diagnostic steps necessary to achieve an accurate diagnosis, along with the interventional and pharmacological approaches to be implemented in light of the latest evidence.