Exploring the role of skeletal muscle in insulin resistance: lessons from cultured cells to animal models

Skeletal muscle is essential to maintain vital functions such as movement, breathing, and thermogenesis, and it is now recognized as an endocrine organ. Muscles release factors named my-okines, which can regulate several physiological processes. Moreover, skeletal muscle is particularly important in maintaining body homeostasis, since it is responsible for more than 75% of all insulin-mediated glucose disposal. Alterations of skeletal muscle differentiation and function, with subse-quent dysfunctional expression and secretion of myokines, play a key role in the pathogenesis of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other metabolic diseases, finally leading to cardiometabolic complica-tions. Hence, a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle function related to energy metabolism is critical for novel strategies to treat and prevent insulin resistance and its cardiometabolic complications. This review will be focused on both cellular and animal models currently available for exploring skeletal muscle metabolism and endocrine func-tion.