Introduction: McDonaldization, Ikeaization, Appleization of Leisure. Is it Cool Enough?

Recent studies on leisure time and the relationship between work and free time highlight two paradoxes that modern advanced societies have to face (Glorieux, Laurijssen, Minnen and van Tienoven 2010). On the one hand, we notice a significant reduction in the number of hours dedicated to working activities and an increase of the hours devoted to leisure activities and activities done in a non-working context and time. This constant lack of time contributes to spreading the perception of pressure on daily life (Gershuny 2000; Goodin, Rice, Bittman and Saunders 2005; Robinson and Godbey 1997) especially in women1 (Freysinger and Flannery 1992). On the other hand, while productivity and wealth have increased—even though there has been an arrest in the last year and a half—together with a diffusion of goods that should allow the buyer to save and use time more efficiently, the consumption of goods has become more volatile and excessive, even useless in some cases. This tendency to volatility in goods consumption together with the overabundance on offer would also involve the consumptions made during and for leisure time, a life style which we have already registered with voracious forms of consumption especially in a specific social class starting from the end of the sixties (Linder 1970). Ultimately, a growth in the perception of life being continuously beset by the lack of time is in contrast with a widespread need of a slower pace (Glorieux, Laurijssen, Minnen and van Tienoven 2010, 164; see also Leccardi 2009) especially in social classes that enjoy particular conditions of wellbeing and economic resources as well as social and cultural ones (Glorieux, Laurijssen, Minnen and van Tienoven 2010, 178). In western societies, many people have to deal with the high cost caused by the acceleration and the proliferation of stress due to a lack of time which is in contrast to the need for wealth (Gleick 1999; Leccardi 2009). The perception of time pressure has caused major changes both in working and leisure time, where we find most of the habits regarding consumption.